Causes of Child Sexual Abuse
Child Sexual Abuse is a complex subject. Both the victim and the perpetrator end up with restricted lives that fail to meet their potentials. The complexity resides in environmental situations along with biological inheritance. Victims take on a very dark view of the world and lose their innocence, while offenders naturally become ostracized and veer into a path where redemption is distant and a life is tainted. Many blogs, videos, books, and other materials focus on victims, which is very important, but I was also interested in what treatment offenders undergo.
A good place to start is to look at possible causes for this abuse, treatments, and what factors are there for recidivism. Even if some readers aren’t anywhere near these situations, the complexity of cause and effect and also the supports that are needed for healing may be applicable to other risky, dangerous, abusive, and addictive behaviors.
Reviewing some of the main books on the subject revealed the same nature vs. nurture debate, and it also continued the pattern of past posts on this series related to failed attempts at bonding in healthy adult relationships, and disastrous replacements. The difference here is that there are more studies involving the nature side of the argument and how different brains can affect perception so that some people can exclusively be sexually interested in children.
There are many theories on the causes of childhood sexual abuse. Here’s a broad sample:
- Failed sexual relations with partners and a need for replacements.
- Hormone levels.
- Learned behavior.
- Layers of inhibitions that are relaxed making perpetrating more likely.
- Undeveloped sexual history.
- The ability to be sexually aroused by children.
- Loss of inhibition with substance abuse.
- Past child abuse and identifying/imitating a past abuser.
- Entitlement.
- Anti-social behavior throughout childhood development.
- Hypersexuality.
- Family histories of abuse that stay in economic and employment failure.
- Older children that abuse younger children and develop a habit into adulthood.
- Consuming child pornography.
- Pedophilia [attraction to children] and Hebephilia [attraction to adolescents].
Pedophilia is a complex subject due to biological constitution and environmental conditioning. There are some good definitions in Pedophilia and Sexual Offending Against Children, by Michael Seto, who discerns that “male pedophilia is the maladaptive extreme of a male tendency to be attracted to youthful cues. Robust evidence indicates that, on average, heterosexual men prefer female partners who are younger and heterosexual women prefer male partners who are older…Female fertility is correlated with youthfulness, and thus men who preferred youthful partners who were nonetheless sexually mature were more likely to produce offspring and pass on the preference than those who were indifferent to cues of youthfulness…Not surprisingly, there is ample historical and cross-cultural evidence that men prefer cues of youthfulness – smooth skin, lustrous hair, child-like facial features, playfulness, vivacity – that are accompanied with cues of sexual maturity – full breasts, waist-to-hip ratio close to .67, and adult size. Pedophilia may represent a malfunction of this youthfulness-seeking propensity, such that men with pedophilia respond strongly to cues of youthfulness even in absence of cues of sexual maturity…Indifference to child-like faces – could reflect chronophilias, in which a man prefers postmenopausal or older women who are past their reproductive years over young sexually mature women…Ponseti et al. (2015) showed that pedophilic men differ from nonpedophilic men in their brain activation to child versus adult faces, focusing on areas associated with rewards and sexual response generally.”
Comparing pedophiles to adult sex offenders found physical and intelligence differences. Julia Shaw in Evil summarizes:
1.Height. Paedohebephiles have been found to be about 2cm shorter than non-paedohebephiles.
2.Handedness. Paedohebephiles are three times more likely to be left-handed.
3.IQ. Paedohebephiles generally have lower IQ.
4.Brain wiring. Paedohebephiles generally have less grey matter and different brain connections.
Treatments
The difficulty between camps is whether someone really is biologically motivated or has a learned behavior problem. There are many therapies that deal with child sex abuse which are more or less invasive. Julia says that “There have been a number of initiatives to decrease the possibility that paedohebephiles will become offenders, including sex-offender helplines and psychological therapy. Both of these generally aim to help manage their desires, rather than to cure them. Anonymous paedohebephilia helplines and communities are becoming more available, as we realise ever more that in order to prevent child sex offending we must both encourage victims and those with these predispositions to speak out. Shunning and ostracising paedohebephiles doesn’t prevent them from acting on their urges, and may well be counterproductive. Initiatives have popped up such as Stop It Now! in the UK, Virtuous Paedophiles in the US and Projekt Dunkelfeld in Germany (translation: ‘darkfield’), all of which aim to provide an outlet, while providing psychological support to prevent individuals from acting on urges. Similarly, although most therapy for paedohebephilia happens after people have committed a crime, there are initiatives that aim to preventatively approach the issue.
“While scarce, some clinics are beginning to offer psychological support for those who have sexual fantasies involving children and who fear that they might act on them. But in many countries this is difficult, as people may want help but fear that their doctor or therapist will tell the police. There is reasonable fear that strict confidentiality could in some cases fail to prevent harm. However, some therapists argue that in order for this system to work, there needs to be a guarantee of strict confidentiality. This approach is hugely controversial. If someone were to tell a doctor that they are currently abusing a child, both the police and the community would reasonably feel that they need to know. But from a harm-reduction perspective it is probably better that the paedohebephile is able to talk to someone about their urges or acts, rather than being completely isolated. Only in this way can they get help dealing with their urges, and help to avoid acting on them.”
“The psychological therapy that they offer aims to help people learn how to control their urges and to extinguish certain beliefs they may hold (such as that children are sexually interested in them, or want to have sex). It is thought that decreasing these beliefs decreases the risk of offending. While hotlines and therapy show great promise in reducing child sexual offending, the long-term results are largely unknown. Still, at the very least, I see it as a positive to humanise paedohebephiles and encourage them to deal with their urges rather than suppress, ignore or act upon them.”
Typical treatment for those who have offended include modern chemical castration, “which involves the regular injection of anti-androgen drugs. These drugs temporarily remove sex drive and make it almost impossible to get an erection…But at a very basic level, does castration even work? Research on both physical and chemical castration actually shows some promising results. Doctors in Germany and the Czech Republic have argued that those who choose physical castration voluntarily see positive results, and find it easier to control their urges. Proponents of chemical castration equally suggest that they see positive results, however some researchers, including Alexandra Lewis, advise us to be cautious with such findings. After reviewing the literature on chemical castration for sex offenders in 2017, Lewis’s results show that overall benefits were seen – with decreased desire and decreased acting on desires – but that the quality of research is not good enough to draw firm conclusions.” The reality is that chemicals can’t change orientation. “Paraphilias live in the brain, not in genitals or hormones. Medical intervention does not cure paedohebephiles, it can merely make their urges less intense.”
For those who are against castration, another option being recommended are realistic child sex dolls, that may turn into child sex robots when the technology advances. “‘Fake children’ have the potential to act as replacements for real children, reducing harm to society and allowing paedohebephiles to live more meaningful and ethical lives. But they also have the potential, for those individuals who consume these materials, to normalise their affliction and lead to more offending behaviour. This would be in line with what we understand about pornography more generally. Having a child sex doll is similar, in at least some respects, to watching child pornography. And, from previous research, we have identified watching child pornography as a risk factor for engaging in contact offences against children. So, child sex dolls may well disinhibit paedohebephilic individuals and make them more likely to offend. Another, third, possible outcome is that such materials make no difference at all. Based on what we know so far, all of these alternatives seem equally likely. This makes it difficult to make appropriate treatment decisions, and means that there is immediate and urgent need for research on these issues.”
Recidivism
There are many pedophiles and hebephiles the don’t commit sexual offenses, but what happens to those people who do and end up in institutions? Sexual Offender Treatment: Controversial Issues, (Hollin et al.), looks at the hard decisions that have to be made on whether to keep people imprisoned indefinitely, or to risk releasing past sex offenders who may offend again. “If the offender gains freedom as a result of the evaluation, the placement of the offender in the community increases the risk for new victimization of law-abiding members of society. The protection of one right (for individual freedom versus community safety) necessarily cuts into the protection of the other.”
This is a big subject because as Pedophilia continues to move in the direction of a sexual orientation, it turns into a scenario where balance is hard to achieve. Too much leeway opens up a situation for fresh victimization, and shaming people who have little prospect of change, for those who exclusively desire children, it opens the door for human rights complaints. The proper balance of course is that pedophilia does exist, but no matter how much blame shifting a pedophile wants achieve, because of their sexual orientation (MAPs Minority Attracted People), pedophilic acts can’t be allowed for precisely all the reasons listed in this series.
Climbing on the back of LGBT groups and their political successes, Blaire White documents the awkward self-disclosures that are beginning to happen on social media where people talk about their age range of sexual desires and make hideous jokes. Those who offend or only dream about it, have a difficult life path where they have to make a life meaningful while staying out of jail.
Pedophiles are proudly posting their faces online – Blaire White: https://thepostmillennial.com/pedophiles-are-proudly-posting-their-faces-online
The difficulty with imperfect assessments as to whether one person or another will offend and or continue to offend is the complexity of the outside world. Certainly access to children has to be as limited as possible while allowing MAPs to essentially sublimate their desires towards socially acceptable avenues. “Habit change is difficult, and offenders vary on the extent to which they are able to self-regulate. Offenders wishing to change need to become familiar with their deviant schemata, the urges that pull them, the situations in which they are invoked, and what they do to disengage them. Much of cognitive-behavioural therapy involves methods for identifying and disengaging deviant schemata (e.g. offence chains, avoid high risk situations). Although self-regulation deficits can directly lead to sexual crimes, self-regulation is particularly important for offenders wishing to change established patterns…Although offenders often describe their offences as ‘just happening’, it is possible to become aware of, and take responsibility for, the thoughts, intentions and emotions that direct behaviour. The simplest approach to assessing schemata is to ask the offenders. Many are able to clearly articulate what ‘turns them on’ and gives them the urge to offend. Valuable information can also be gained by examining the circumstances of previous offences and the accounts of victims. Specialized testing can also help offenders develop insight into what ‘hooks’ them.”
Sublimation – Sigmund Freud: https://youtu.be/dcht85_CLGo
One of the most important indicators of recidivism is anti-social orientations where impulse control is very low. “We all need to develop strategies for managing our sexual impulses, and sexual offenders would represent individuals whose sexual self-management skills are at the low end of the continuum. It is not unusual for ‘normal’ adult men to have some sexual interest in deviant sexual behaviour, such as voyeurism, young girls or frottage. For non-offenders, however, the attractions are weak and fleeting. In contrast, many sexual offenders developed their deviant urges through rumination and masturbation fantasies, and by creating opportunities to enact their deviant desires…Problems with sexual self-regulation can be understood within the larger context of general self-regulation problems and antisocial orientation. The association between low self-control and crime is so strong that Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990) considered it to be the cause of crime. Individuals who commit crimes tend to change jobs and residences, have unrealistic plans for the future, and engage in a variety of high risk behaviours (e.g. drinking, driving fast, unsafe work practices). In addition to low self-control, the other major indicator of antisocial orientation is hostility—often expressed as a chronic grievance against the world and those in it…Antisocial orientation may directly result in sexual offences, but it is particularly important for those who have deviant sexual interests. An individual may find young boys sexually attractive, but never act on this attraction given sufficient self-control and good judgement. In contrast, individuals with an antisocial orientation may feel that they cannot control their impulses, and, besides, why should they? The world owes them something.”
This lack of control can be seen when attitudes towards offending are more extreme and full of entitlement or they are hidden because the subject is aware that those acts are wrong. “It is important to distinguish between believing that sexual offending is OK (which predicts recidivism) and efforts to minimize culpability (which are unrelated to recidivism). When we are caught doing something wrong, we typically struggle to find accounts that mitigate the negative social consequences of our transgressions. The most common strategies for diverting culpability are to deny that we did the act, or to minimize the consequences; sexual offenders are no different. Evaluators wishing to differentiate between pro-offending attitudes and defensiveness may benefit from considering the offenders’ opinions about sexual offences committed by others. Attempting to justify one’s own transgressions is quite different from believing that it is acceptable for others to do the same thing. Offenders who deny their offences are at least admitting that sexual offending is wrong.”
A big part of preventing recidivism is to have an intimate partner. They can monitor you and satisfy healthy forms of human attachment. “Child molesters may be attracted to immature, childish relationships, and may feel very much like children themselves. Marshall (1989) has made an important contribution by focusing attention on the need to address intimacy deficits in the treatment of sexual offenders; further research is required, however, to determine the extent to which improved intimacy is associated with medium or long-term reductions in recidivism risk.”
There are other acute factors that can be associated with recidivism. “Some sexual offenders appear to have little capacity for, or experience dealing with, emotions and fail to recognize emotions in themselves and others.”
Being able to journal about events and emotions helps to categorize where skills need to be developed to prevent relapse:
- Anger.
- Loneliness.
- Substance use.
- Victim access.
- Sexual preoccupations.
- Problematic social relationships.
- Intensity of moods.
- Length of time to return to baseline functioning.
When prior sex offenders are triggered in situations, the need is imperative to let go of old schema, distorted beliefs, and rumination that leads to old hardwired familiar pathways. “Roger and Masters (1997) developed a specific emotion control training program for sexual offenders that provided strategies designed to reduce rumination and increase adaptive coping. The focus in this program was on regaining control of attention and releasing ‘bottled up’ emotion in a constructive manner. They found an increase in task-focused coping following treatment, and a decrease in emotion-focused coping style.”
Naturally offenders have problems with shame. The difficulty in getting shame-proned people to move into guilt can be the difference between successful coping and recidivism. “The role of shame in relapses was suggested by Hudson, Ward and Marshall (1992), within the framework of attribution theory. They argued that a sexual offender who responds to a lapse with an internal but controllable attribution should experience guilt, which should motivate a commitment to abstinence. However, a sexual offender who responds to a lapse with an internal uncontrollable attribution (e.g. ‘I have no willpower. I am a disgusting person’) experiences shame. This could result in giving up attempts to cope, so that a complete relapse could occur.” This can also affect victims further because “the experience of shame following sexual offending results in decreased self-efficacy, decreased ability to use adaptive coping, increased personal distress, externalization of blame, increased cognitive distortions, and decreased victim-specific empathy, all of which increase the risk of re-offending.”
Sleep like a baby tonight – U2: https://youtu.be/mawuTUtJs0A
Shame is negatively correlated to empathy, where as guilt allows more empathic perspectives. “Jenkins (1998) proposed that the sexual offender ‘is assisted to separate his actions (what I have done) from his identity (who I am); to recognize that he may have done a terrible thing, but that he is not a terrible person’. Another way to express this is to say that the offender is helped to change the focus away from condemnation of self, to condemnation of his actions, which is akin to moving from shame to guilt. Clients may find it easier to distinguish themselves from their actions when they understand and can label the concepts of shame and guilt. The suggestion by Tangney and Dearing (2002) that clients should be educated explicitly about the difference between shame and guilt may be useful also in the treatment of child molesters.” I would also add that if one is looking at measuring actions instead of measuring the self, it should emphasize that positive action should be used instead of rumination so that shameful rumination is replaced by actions that actually promote healthier self-esteem. You believe in actions, not a concrete, permanent, limited self. Likely, positive action that repeats long enough can create new habits and make it harder to fall into recidivism if a new healthy baseline is developed.
Healing victims of child sexual abuse
Similar to problems of incest with children in Part 1 of this series, past offenders have to pay attention to how people have a self-narrative, including children, and actions have to be assessed on how they can damage not only oneself with shame and stigma, but also how it can damage the potential of others. Victims often experience PTSD, or C-PTSD with repeated attacks, and this damages their self-esteem and can lock them into rigid ruminations about self-value. Typical treatments involve talking therapy to get distorted thinking out of the mind of the victim. What happened to them was not their fault. The need to be a caretaker for abusers has to end, and taking action to develop oneself instead of ruminating has to begin.
There are those who are both victims and perpetrators, so the above prescription for sex offenders who want to reform has to work with their victimized childhoods. Unpacking cause and effect throughout the life story can create learning opportunities, but it can also provide ways to remove distorted thinking, especially thinking that takes an adult mentality, and standards, and telepathically transports that back to childhood memories, a time when the child had much less skill in dealing with abuse. Children needed to adapt, even pathologically, in order to survive these helpless early relationships with parents and authoritative people.
Perversion Part 1: Incest – Ferenczi and Beyond: https://psychreviews.org/perversion-incest/
Those who haven’t offended, but were victims, have to learn to develop skills to deal with conflict and to not shy away from socializing. Paranoia can easily slip in when there are a lot of past abusive incidents. The world looks more scary than it is. The Sexual Healing Journey by Wendy Maltz, aims to counter distorted thinking that victims typically fall into: “I’m afraid I will fail if I try. Failure is doing nothing about a problem that bothers us. If our efforts don’t go as we hoped, we still learn and can take a new approach next time. Mistakes and setbacks happen in every endeavor.”
Self-esteem can’t be wished away with euphemisms and platitudes. Self-esteem labels can also run in the subconscious and need to be teased out to see which negative self-views are dominating and which positive self-views are buried. “The first dimension, the self-views in awareness, consists of conscious, familiar, and often articulated self-perceptions. These views reflect the messages about oneself that were heard frequently from significant others in childhood. The self-views in awareness of the client with a poor self-image are often that he or she is bad, worthless, or dirty. The second dimension, the maybe me self-views, consists of self-perceptions that are not immediately in one’s awareness. One may, however, apply these views to oneself if one’s attention is directed toward them. These views reflect messages received only occasionally in childhood. For survivors of abuse, the maybe me self-views are often positive qualities that perhaps teachers or some other supportive adults in their lives acknowledged. A maybe me self-view of an abuse survivor might be that he or she was a good student and a child of some worth to someone. The third dimension, the not me self-views, consists of self-perceptions that are out of awareness. Because these views are associated with severe anxiety, they are dissociated from the individual’s experience. An abuse survivor’s not me self-view might be that he or she is a worthy, valuable individual who possesses basic personal rights. Although these are positive perceptions, such self-views are at odds with the ways in which individuals with negative self-images are accustomed to perceiving themselves.”
Interventions with clients involve directing attention to events that don’t support those negative self-views and allow the client to see how distorted those beliefs are and how many are just habits based on how others in the past described the client. Just because valuations are repetitive doesn’t mean they are true. The old voices in the mind have to weaken with non-use and the weaker positive voices have to strengthen with repetition. Repeatedly developing actions that support positive views will also change the self-outlook in the mind.
Healing victims of Ritual abuse and Spiritual abuse
One of the difficulties in recovering from child sex abuse comes from the experiences of mind control found in ritual abuse. Ritual abuse was first defined as Satanic Ritual Abuse, but then was shortened to include perpetrators that worship other deities other than Satan. The sexual abuse in these rituals involved orgies, sex with parents, relatives, and cult members.
Programming of children involves normalizing the abuse and to provide roleplaying for children so that they take on beliefs that help to keep perpetrators safe from accusation. Natural gaslighting also happens due to the fact that many in the population are unaware of ritual abuse and have trouble believing that it’s possible. Abusers take this natural tendency of people in the population, that people are inherently good, and exploit it. In Becoming Yourself Overcoming Mind Control and Ritual Abuse, by Alison Miller, describes how abusers want to be able to do what they want and to get away with it. This matches well with extreme forms of Narcissism and Anti-social personality types. For people with those disorders, goals are to be achieved, and punishment evaded through strategies learned through trial and error. Over many years, anti-social types get very skilled at deception, and it helps to explain why abuse can go on for so long and be undetected.
How to get at the truth when healing is to look at the self-deceptions that cult victims have been programmed with. “Mind control is produced through a combination of hypnotic suggestion, drugs, torture, threats, and double binds (choices where there is no good option).” Through a lack of development, the adult mind can retain old childish beliefs that were implanted early. A big part of healing is to challenge those old beliefs that continue re-victimization, and create impulses to return to abusers.
Next is seeing how indoctrination is done in the conventional way, and to see how abusers benefit by these tactics. It was never for your benefit. “These beliefs were hammered into each part of your young mind over and over, through religious ceremonies, military drills, songs and chants and rhymes, severe punishments, and rewards for compliance or memorizing the correct beliefs. You may have been forced or coerced into making vows of loyalty and signing official documents, sometimes in blood, swearing allegiance to the group.”
Like in my review of Cult Psychology, the social brain is hijacked so that people become naturally afraid of ostracism, stalking, threats of punishment, and a fear that one cannot live in the normal world without the cult. There’s a certain amount of healthy rebelliousness that is required of each generation to pull away from the toxicity implanted from prior generations. This is even more imperative with cults. Loyalty has to be a two-way street. One-way forms of loyalty are all about exploitation to suck all the benefits up to the top.
Cult Psychology: https://youtu.be/ywWQLOar5Bo
“Loyalty is a rather strange value. It has been used by military organizations, companies, schools, and various other institutions to get people associated with them or in their employ to put the organization first. But, in my opinion, it has been misused. Yes, it is important not to sell out your friends for money, and when a person has treated you with kindness and respect they deserve the same back. But this is earned loyalty.” Loyalty becomes toxic when reciprocity is absent. Like most other forms of healing in this series, a victim lost their ability to make decisions for themselves and to create their own feedback loops with reality tests. The conventional conceptual self can’t be recognized if initiative, volition, self-direction, and independent thought are skills that remain undeveloped. When victims begin to heal they get that Eureka! where they finally believe “I can do this myself! It’s fun to do this myself!”
Again, after all this conditioning, survivors have probably engaged in a lot of bad behavior, including substance abuse and sexual abuse. Being directed by narcissists and psychopaths will naturally make one have a past history that is sordid and compromised. Attaining self-directed self-esteem can’t move forward without the understanding of “two wrongs don’t make a right.” One can accept that one has done bad without going into the trap of shame as described above. Actions are good or bad, and past bad actions should not be an excuse to identify with “badness” so that one continues with bad actions.
“Am I evil? I have heard this question many times from survivors. Sometimes, it is not phrased as a question, but just as a statement: ‘I am evil.’ It is often followed by ‘God hates me. I am going to hell.’ These beliefs are deeply ingrained in survivors, particularly of ritual abuse. There are two reasons for this, one true, one false. The false reason is the things the abuser group told you, and the scenarios they set up to make you believe these things. The true reason is that evil was committed, and you were made to be part of it. Every survivor has to come to terms with this.”
These rigid self-beliefs make it very difficult to change behaviors, and strangers who only know of a person’s past bad history can reinforce those negative self-beliefs by perfectionistic expectations and shaming. What all people need to know is that humans are social animals and they have attachment needs. Those needs can be warped and used to serve evil deeds in order to maintain social rewards. When we have all our leverage points covered by abusers, they take on that Freudian Prestige, where we can easily be induced into panic and fear when we desperately need something from someone who is restricting access. We are more willing to mold ourselves to abusers and their plans.
Group Psychology – Freud and Beyond: https://youtu.be/Glw3sOeQEng
If one pays attention to these tactics of gaslighting, shaming, splitting, and anti-social goal orientation, one can see that it’s not just in cults that we see these social dynamics, but we also see them, and take part in these dynamics, in workplaces, political environments, and even unexpected places like non-profit and volunteer organizations. People aren’t only fighting for money, but for social attention and social rewards. Abusers may not go as far as child sex abuse, but varieties of social control, hoarding of power and assets, ostracism, social punishment, and acceptance of lies, rituals, and regular debasement, are common experiences in many people’s lives. Because we need these social structures to operate properly, there is always a need for transparency, whistle-blowing, and justifiable consequences to keep necessary institutions from turning into corrupt oligarchies with no checks and balances. It’s very easy for us to introject “demons” into our psyche for our own survival and advancement in social hierarchies. The question to regularly ask oneself is “what did I have to do in order to get pleasures, success, rewards or power?”
Childhood Sexual Abuse by Karen L. Kinnear: Hardcover: https://amzn.to/3862jf7
Counselling Survivors of Childhood Sexual Abuse by Claire Burke Draucker, Donna Martsolf: Kindle: https://amzn.to/3828z7M
Pedophilia and Sexual Offending Against Children Theory, Assessment, and Intervention by Michael C. Seto: Kindle: https://amzn.to/3pAYqEQ
Sexual Offender Treatment Controversial Issues – Hollin, McMurran, Marshall, Fernandez, and Serran – Kindle: https://amzn.to/3rMQUsE Paperback: https://amzn.to/3obrVgk
The Sexual Healing Journey A Guide for Survivors of Sexual Abuse by Wendy Maltz: Kindle: https://amzn.to/3pG81dD Paperback: https://amzn.to/3540Zrc
Understanding Child Sexual Abuse by Edward L. Rowan: Kindle: https://amzn.to/3rOmtCb Paperback: https://amzn.to/2WZLeNx
Evil by Julia Shaw: Paperback: https://amzn.to/2JHoOOk
Becoming Yourself Overcoming Mind Control and Ritual Abuse by Alison Miller: Kindle: https://amzn.to/2Lhisp0
Ritual Abuse and Mind Control The Manipulation of Attachment Needs by Orit Badouk Epstein, Joseph Schwartz, Rachel Wingfield: Kindle: https://amzn.to/3ocoh5I Paperback: https://amzn.to/38REvuK
Psychology: https://psychreviews.org/category/psychology01/